Like most foreigners, the Danes enjoyed extraterritoriality under consular jurisdiction. Most of the time the Russian consul was acting for Denmark, and some of the Danes challenged both to the consular services, a well as extraterritoriality in general, as illustrated by a few cases.

Leif Littrup was born in 1944 and earned his PhD from the Australian National University in 1978. He then taught Chinese and history at the University of Copenhagen and is now retired. He has published on Chinese history since around 1500, mostly on subbureaucratic government at the village level, on the study of world history in China in modern times and on Chinese relations to the outside world.